Virgule

The virgule (/), is known by many names, including diagonal, solidus, oblique, slant, slash, forward slash, and slash mark. The virgule is used to represent a word that is not written out or to separate or set off certain adjacent elements of text.

A virgule most commonly signifies alternatives. In certain contexts it represents the word or.

Examples:

he/she
his/her
oral/written tests
and/or
alumni/ae

A virgule represents the word per or to when used with units of measure or when used to indicate the terms of a ratio.

Examples:

40,000 tons/year
14 gm/100 cc
9 ft./sec.
a 50/50 split

A virgule replaces the word and in some compound terms.

Examples:

in the May/June issue
1973/74
parent/child problems

A virgule punctuates some abbreviations and in lieu of a period.

Examples:

c/o
w/
w/o
S/Sgt
d/b/a




Source: Grammar Done Right!

Objective Pronouns

Objective pronouns are used as the objects in sentences. You would say, for instance:

Jennifer came to see her last night.
For the twins' birthday, Amy gave them several new toys.

As with compound subjects, problems arise when there are compound objects. People sometimes write or say sentences like this:

The argument arose last night between Carla and she.
Please buy a raffle ticket from Nancy or I.

Each pronoun is used incorrectly in these sentences. The pronouns used as subjects here should all be in the objective case: me, you, him, her, it, us and them. So, the sentences should read:

The argument arose last night between Carla and her.
Please buy a raffle ticket from Nancy or me.

You can use the same trick that you used for the subjective pronoun problem, but substitute the objective form; that is, write or say the sentence with only one object. You'd never say:

The argument arose last night between she.
Please buy a raffle ticket from I.

Since those pronouns sound wrong when they're by themselves, you know that they're the wrong case. Change the pronouns to the ones you'd normally say when there is only one object.

So why were you and it on the lists of both subjective and objective pronouns? Because, unlike other pronouns on the lists (I and me, for example), English uses the same form for those two words.

It was nice to get a surprise in the mail. (It used as a subject.)
I got it in the mail. (It is used as an object.)
You called me a four o'clock? (You is used as a subject.)
I called you back at five o'clock. (You is used as an object.)



Source: The Only Grammar Book You'll Ever Need

Conjunctions

A conjunction joins words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. I think we all know the most common conjunctions and when to use them; and, but, for, or, yet, and so. But here are two conjunctions that always confuse people.

When should you use or and when should you use nor?

Don't let these guys trick you. Remember this simple rule and you'll never be confused again.

When using the word either, us or. They both start with vowels. When using the word neither, use nor. They both start with "n."

Examples:

We had to decide if we were going to either the movies or to dinner.
My boss had neither the time nor the patience to listen to Bill's complaining.

Beginning a Sentence with a Conjunction

Just as there is widespread belief that you should not end a sentence with a preposition, there is also no historical or grammatical foundation that you should not begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction.

A coordinating conjunction you'll remember is for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Once again, I could find no substantial evidence that beginning a sentence with a conjunction is an error and is mainly taught to avoid writing fragmented sentences.

If you decide to begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, keep these points in mind:

– Be sure that a main clause follows the coordinating conjunction.

– Use a coordinating conjunction only when it makes the flow of your ideas more effective.

– Do not use a comma after the coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are not considered transitional expressions like in addition and for instance.

– But used as an adversative conjunction can sometimes be unclear at the beginning of a sentence. You'll need to evaluate whether the but in question contradicts the preceding statement and see whether and is really the word you want. If and can be substituted, then but is almost certainly the wrong word.

Examples:

He went to work this morning. But he left his briefcase at home.

Between those sentences is an indirect idea, since the two actions are in no way contradictory. What is implied is something like this:

He went to work, intending to give a presentation, but he left his briefcase behind.

Because and would have made sense in the original statement, but is not the right word.

Correct: He went to work this morning. And he left his briefcase at home.

Of course there are other options for structuring this sentence; however this post being about conjunctions, the example uses only conjunctions.




Source: Grammar Done Right!

Effective Writing

There are countless grammar rules and writing guidelines; below are eight easy rules to help you write effectively.

Rule 1. Use concrete rather than vague language.

Examples:
Vague: The weather was of an extreme nature on the west coast.
Concrete: California had very cold weather last week.

Rule 2. Use active voice whenever possible. Active voice means the subject is performing the verb.

Examples:
Active: Barry hit the ball.
Passive: The ball was hit.

Notice that the responsible party may not even appear when using passive voice.

Rule 3. Avoid overusing there is, there are, it is, it was, and so on.

Example: There is a case of meningitis that was reported in the newspaper.
Correction: A case of meningitis was reported in the newspaper.
Even Better: The newspaper reported a case of meningitis. (Active voice)

Example: It is important to signal before making a left turn.
Correction: Signaling before making a left turn is important.
OR
Signaling before a left turn is important.
OR
You should signal before making a left turn. (Active voice)

Example: There are some revisions which must be made.
Correction: Some revisions must be made.
Even Better: Please make some revisions. (Active voice)

Rule 4. To avoid confusion, don't use two negatives to make a positive.

Incorrect: He is not unwilling to help.
Correct: He is willing to help.

Rule 5. Use similar grammatical form when offering several ideas. This is called parallel construction.

Correct: You should check your spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Incorrect: You should check your spelling, grammar and punctuating.

Rule 6. If you start a sentence with an action, place the actor immediately after or you will have created the infamous dangling modifier.

Incorrect: While walking across the street, the bus hit her.
Correct: While walking across the street, she was hit by a bus.
OR
She was hit by a bus while walking across the street.

Rule 7. Place modifiers near the words they modify.

Incorrect: I have some pound cake Mollie packed in my lunch bag.
Correct: In my lunch bag, I have some pound cake that Mollie baked.

Rule 8. A sentence fragment occurs when you have only a phrase or weak clause but are missing a strong clause.

Example of Sentence Fragment: After the show ended.
Example of Sentence: After the show ended, we had coffee.



Source: Blue Book of Grammar

Writing Dates and Times

Writing dates and times is something that falls under the category I refer to as grammar slang. So many people are unsure of how to write them, it has become a gray area where you'll find dates and times written out in any number of ways. There are grammatical rules, which I've listed below, with examples of proper usage.

Rule: The following examples apply when using dates:

The book will be published on August 9.
The book will be published on the 9th of August.
April Fools' Day is April 1.
The 1st of April is April Fools' Day.


Rule: When expressing decades, they can be spelled out and lowercased.

Example: I have several books from the eighties and nineties.


Rule: Whether you express decades using incomplete or complete numerals, do not use an apostrophe between the year and the s. When using an incomplete numeral, use an apostrophe to replace the first two numbers.

Correct:
During the ’80s, I purchased several books.
During the 1980s, I purchased several books.

Incorrect:
During the ’80’s, I purchased several books.
During the 1980’s, I purchased several books.


Rule: Spell out the time of day in text even with half and quarter hours. With o’clock, the number is always spelled out.

Example: He left at four thirty to meet with his agent.
Example: His meeting with his agent was at five o’clock in the afternoon.


Rule: Use numerals with the time of day when exact times are being emphasized.

Example: She received the message at 9:22 a.m.
Example: The meeting is at 12:30 p.m. sharp.


Rule: Use noon and midnight rather than 12:00 a.m. or 12:00 p.m.

Note: In printed matter, many times you will see A.M. and P.M.

In much the same way that E-mail and e-mail has evolved into email, AM and PM are also widely used, though not officially grammatically correct.

Sources: Grammarbook, Gregg Reference Manual

Apostrophe Use With Possessive Nouns

How to use apostrophes with possessive nouns can, at times, be a little tricky. Here are a few tips on how and when to use the apostrophe when forming the possessive of certain nouns:


SINGULAR NOUNS

To form the possessive of a singular noun not ending in an s sound, add an apostrophe plus s to the noun.

Crystal's blog
California's coastline

To form the possessive of a singular noun that ends in an s sound, be guided by the way you pronounce the word.

a. If a new syllable is formed in the pronunciation of the possessive, add an apostrophe plus s.

The boss's approval
St. Louis's airport

b. If the addition of an extra syllable would make a word ending in an s sound awkward or hard to pronounce, add the apostrophe only.

Los Angeles' freeways
For goodness' sake
New Orleans' restaurants
For convenience' sake


PLURAL NOUNS

For a regular plural noun (one that ends in s), add only an apostrophe to form the plural possessive.

Investors' objectives
The witnesses' contradictions
The United States' policy
Attorneys' fees
The agencies' rules


REMEMBER...
Plural nouns that end in s take only an apostrophe, while singular nouns that end in s take an apostrophe plus s, (unless the apostrophe plus s sounds awkward).

The bosses' office - plural
The boss's office - singular
Los Angeles' freeways - singular, but Los Angeles's freeways sounds awkward.


For an irregular plural noun (one that does not end in s), add an apostrophe plus s to form the plural possessive.

Women's coats
Children's toys


A good way to avoid mistakes in forming the possessive of plural nouns, is to form the plural of the noun first, then apply whichever grammar rule above fits:


Singular Noun------------Plural Noun------------------------Plural Possessive
boy----------------------------boys (regular)----------------------boys'
boss--------------------------bosses (regular)------------------bosses'
child--------------------------children (irregular)----------------children's
mother-in-law--------------mothers-in-law (irregular)-------mothers-in-law's



An additional note...
Now to completely confuse you, some constructions can be tricky. For example, the use of back-to-back possessives. Say, for example, you want to refer to the children belonging to two brothers of your father, (i.e., your cousins). The double possessive would be: My father's brothers' children. You could even have a triple possessive with: My father's brothers' children's books. Ouch. Obviously best to stick with your cousins!

Also, a more common problem is the use of a possessive form when ownership is involved. Take the example above of: mothers-in-law's. Obviously we're referring to a possession of two or more mothers-in-law. Rather than, The mothers-in-law's purses, you could opt for: The purses of the mothers-in-law.


ADDENDUM...
I'm including this excerpt, as you will note is also in the reply to Diane's comment. Whether to add just the apostrophe or the apostrophe plus s to possessive nouns, including names, is very controversial; there seems to be no absolute and clear-cut rule:

According to the Chicago Manual of Style, for nouns ending in s: "the possessive of most singular nouns is formed by adding an apostrophe and an s, and the possessive of plural nouns by adding an apostrophe only...this practice is used in conjuction with the way possessive forms are generally pronounced." It goes on to add that, "...feelings on these matters sometimes run high..." thus ending in numerous exceptions and modifications to the general "rule."




Sources: Gregg Reference Manual, CMS, Grammarmudge

Awhile and A While

A while is a noun phrase in which "a" is an article, and "while" functions as a noun meaning "a short period of time."

Awhile is an adverb meaning "for a while."
The word awhile has "for" built into its meaning.

Basically, the meaning is the same, it's the structure that differs.

A mnemonic to assist in determining which to use, is whether "for a while" could be used in the sentence, without changing its meaning, where you were intending to use awhile.

********************************************************************************************************************
Examples:


- "I'll speak with you awhile" is correct because you could also say, "I'll speak with you for a while."

- "I'll speak with you for awhile" is not correct because you're actually using the word "for" twice.
(awhile = for a while: "I'll speak with you for for a while.")

- "I'll prepare my blog in awhile" is not correct as you would not say "I'll prepare my blog in for a while."

- "Writing the blog may take awhile" is not correct because, "Writing the blog may take for a while" is not idiomatic English.
(awhile = for a while: "Writing the blog may take for for a while.")

- "I have relatives staying with me awhile" is correct, as you could also say "I have relatives staying with me for a while."

- "I have relatives staying with me for awhile" is not correct, as in actuality that would be saying, "I have relatives staying with me for for a while."

********************************************************************************************************************

The two-word noun phrase a while is more often the correct choice that is the one-word adverb awhile.

Most grammatical errors involve using awhile where a while would be the appropriate choice.

Again, remember the mnemonic of placing the word "for" before either choice. It's a nearly foolproof way of determining which is appropriate to use.




Sources: Gregg Reference Manual, Grammarmudge, AP Stylebook, CMS

Wednesday's Word

Welcome to this week's edition of Wednesday's Word, where you'll learn an obsure, not-very-common and/or not-frequently used word.


Today's Wednesday's Word is: OBDORMITION.


Obdormition is a noun and it's description is: numbness or 'going to sleep' of a limb, etc.


We've all been the victims of obdormition! So next time your leg goes numb after all those hours at the computer, try using today's new word and let someone know that obdormition is SUCH an inconvenience! (It can even be dangerous! I've actually landed on the floor as a result of not knowing I had obdormition in one of my legs, or feet...)

Okay, have fun with that, and see you back next Wednesday for another new, weird word! LOL!!




Note: The source for many of the words I'll be featuring can be found at Luciferous Logolepsy. They are so obscure, I was actually unable to find some of them at a couple of common online dictionary references, such as The Free Dictionary.com.

Quotation Marks

Today on Techie Tuesday we're going to take a quick look at quotation marks and some of the basic rules that apply when using them.

Quotation Marks are marks of punctuation that are used to set off a direct quotation or a piece of dialogue.


DIRECT QUOTATIONS

Use double quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation.
Direct quotations repeat a speaker's exact words.

- Her editor told her, "The final edits are done on the manuscript."

- "The final edits," her editor told her, "are done on the manuscript."


INDIRECT QUOTATIONS

You would not use quotation marks were the sentence structured using and indirect quotation.
Indirect quotations are summaries or paraphrases of someone else's words.

- Her editor told her that the final edits were done on the manuscript.


TITLES

Double quotation marks are also used to enclose titles of songs, short stories, essays, poems and articles.

- Hearing the song "Over the Rainbow" always invoked memories of home for her.

- Her essay, "Caring for our Elders," earned her very high accolades from her professor.


However, do not use quotation marks around titles of books, newspapers or magazines. Either italicize or underline them instead.

- After having read, The Fall of the Russian Empire, he realized there was much he hadn't known on the subject.

- The New York Times has outstanding movie reviews.


QUOTATIONS WITHIN QUOTATIONS

When you have a quotation within a quotation, use single quotation marks:

- Christine told her daughter, "I've always loved the song 'Over the Rainbow.'"

Notice that both a single and a double set of quotation marks appear at the end of the sentence - a single mark to close the title of the song and a double mark to close the direct quotation.


COMMAS, PERIODS AND QUOTATIONS

When a comma or period appears at the end of a quotation, put it inside the quotation mark:

- "The final edits," her editor told her, "are done on the manuscript."


OTHER PUNCTUATION MARKS AND QUOTATIONS

When a semicolon or colon appears at the end of a quotation, it it placed outside the quotation mark:

- Her editor said, "The final edits are done on the manuscript"; however, she wanted to go over it one more time.


Question marks or exclamation points appearing at the end of a quotation are put inside the quotation mark if it belongs to the quotation:

- Stephanie exclaimed, "Get in here and clean this room!"


However if it does not belong to the quotation, the question or exclamation mark is placed outside the quotation mark:

- Did The Beatles really record a song called "Yellow Submarine"?




(Partial) Sources: Gregg Reference Manual, CMS

Who and Whom

As many of you know, I refer to my more "in-depth" posts as "techie." Thus the name...

Who is used as the subject of a sentence.
Whom is used as an object in a sentence.
_________________________

Who was at the conference?
Whom did you see at the conference?

In the first sentence above, who is the subject.
In the second sentence, you is the subject and whom is the direct object (of who was at the conference).
_________________________

Who is the book dedicated to? Who is the subject.
To whom is the book dedicated? Whom is the object (of the book).
_________________________

A practically fail-proof exercise to help determine which is correct to use is to replace the word in question with he/she or him/her.

He/she is the equivalent of who (subjective) and him/her is the equivalent of whom (objective). For example:

Who/Whom should I ask to review the book?

I should ask he/she...
I should ask him/her...

I should ask him/her to review the book is right. Therefore, Whom should I ask to review the book? is the correct choice.
________________________

Whom is also used as the object of prepositions - words such as to, for, about, over, of, after, from or before. If one of these prepositions is present, it will precede the word whom.

Examples

The letter should begin with, "To Whom It May Concern."
For Whom the Bell Tolls.
About whom should I write to book?
The heated discussion was over whom?
You indicated the book was a biography of whom?
After whom do I give my presentation?
From whom do you expect to receive a good review?
Before whom do I stand in line?

________________________

SYNOPSIS

Who is used as the subject of a sentence.
Whom is used as an object in a sentence.

Substituting he/him or she/her is an excellent exercise in determining which word to use.

Whom is used when followed by prepositions such as to, for, about, over, of, after, from or before.

How the sentence is structured can change which word you use.

Whom in many situations is more formal than who. You can say:

"Who are you talking to?" or
"To whom are you talking?" (Notice the word to before whom.)

Spelling Challenge

Not only is it already October (what happened to SUMMER?), it's also already time to once again test your spelling skills! Along with the change of season, as you no doubt noticed in the header, I've changed the name of the weekly "Misspelled Words" feature to "FUN FRIDAY'S SPELLING CHALLENGE!"


And...here are today's words. The answers are below, and of course you know...



NO PEEKING!



1. annoint, annoynt, anoint

2. camouflage, cammoflage, camoflauge

3. deterrance, deterrence, deterence

4. explaination, explanaition, explanation

5. hypocresy, hypocrisy, hypocracy

6. nauseous, nauseus, naucious

7. putrify, putrefy, putrefie

8. subpoena, subpena, supoena

9. tariff, tarriff, tarrif

10. eukalale, ukulele, ukalele


BONUS WORD

onometopia, onomatopoeia, onomatopoea



Remember, if spell the first ten words correctly,
you get a GOLD STAR!



If you spell the bonus word correctly, you get the prized, very special and much coveted
Crystal Clear Proofing PURPLE STAR!




AND...if you spell the ten words AND the bonus word correctly,
then you get a GOLD STAR and a PURPLE STAR!

Now THAT'S not only exciting, but one heck of an incentive, right?
(Just agree with me, it's Friday...)




ANSWERS:

1 anoint
2. camouflage
3 deterrence
4. explanation
5. hypocrisy
6. nauseous
7. putrefy
8. subpoena
9. tariff
10.ukulele

BONUS WORD:
onomatopoeia

(For the definition of today's bonus word just click FreeDictionary.com)



NEW FEATURES COMING TO CRYSTAL CLEAR PROOFING: In addition to differences between words, which word to use when...(otherwise known as the "techie posts"), and Fun Friday's Spelling Challenge, I'm tossing around some ideas for other posts; for example, one may have to do with words that are uncommon and you don't hear or use often - such as today's bonus word.

Another idea is to write a one or two paragraph story, complete with a few errors, and your challenge would be to find them!

I'll be working out the details and considering different options over the next few days. If any of you have any ideas or things you'd like to see here, please - by all means mention them! In the meantime...



Enjoy your weekend - and remember to SMILE!
It not only lights up your face, but shines upon those you share it with!
It's an easy way to spread some HAPPY - and it just makes you feel GOOD!

Lay and Lie

Many variables create the lay and lie conundrum. Not only are they irregular verbs, but other issues arise when dealing with these two words and their various forms:

The past tense of one form is the present tense of another, i.e., the past tense of lie is lay.
Lay is also a present tense verb.
One of them, lie, can also refer to an untruth.


Lay means to put down, or to place.
It is a transitive verb and requires an object.

Lie means to recline, or occupy a location.
It is an intransitive verb and does not have an object.

Tip from CCP: A good way to remember which has an object and which doesn't is LIE. When using it to reference an untruth it has a negative connotation, so think of the fact that it does NOT have an object.


Therefore, you LAY a book on a table, and you LIE down.
(You don't lie the book on the table - you have an object. And, in the present tense, you don't lay down - you don't have an object).


Confused yet?


Here are some examples on how to conjugate these two verbs:

LAY
Remember lay is transitive and must have a direct object.
The past tense of lay is laid.

- Present tense: I lay the books on the table.
- Past tense: I laid the books on the table.
- Past participle: I had laid the books on the table.

LIE
Remember lie is intransitive and cannot have a direct object.
The past tense of lie is lay.

- Present tense: I lie down to rest.
- Past tense: Yesterday, I lay down to rest.
- Past participle: One day last week I had lain down to rest.


*****************************************************************
Substituting lay with place:

Since lay means to put down or to place, a good test in deciding whether to use lay or lie in a sentence is to *substitute the word place, placed or placing (as appropriate) for the word in question. If the substitute fits, the corresponding form of lay is correct. If it doesn't, use the appropriate form of lie.

- I will (lie or lay?) down now. (You would not say "I will place down now." Therefore, "I will lie down now" is correct.)

- I (laid or lay?) the pad on the desk. ("I placed the pad on the desk" works. Therefore, "I laid the pad" is correct.)

- I (laid or lay?) awake many nights. ("I placed awake" doesn't work. "I lay awake" is correct.)

- These files have (laid or lain?) untouched for some time. ("These files have placed untouched" doesn't work. Correct: "These files have lain untouched.")

- He has been (laying or lying?) down on the job. ("He has been placing down on the job" doesn't work. Correct: "He has been lying down.")*

*Source: The Gregg Reference Manual, Sixth Edition*
***************************************************************


Even grammar "experts" have a difficult time with lay and lie, and use a cheat sheet such as the one below:

****************************************************************

PRESENT........PAST..........PAST
TENSE...........TENSE........PARTICIPLE

Lay*................Laid............Laid______to place or put down
Lie..................Lay..............Lain______to recline

*Remember - requires an object.

****************************************************************
(Special Note: "Layed" is not a word - it is "LAID.")


Today you lay the book on the table,
yesterday you laid the book on the table,
and in the past you have laid the book on the table.

You need to lie down today,
yesterday you lay down
and in the past you have lain down.



If you had printed this out, you could now lay the pages on the table and go lie down and relax after reading all this information about lay and lie.

If all else fails, at least the chart above will help you remember. Really! I wouldn't lie!

There's More to Proofreading Than Just Reading!

Part of the job of a good proofreader is to not only find the errors, but also having the ability to find the write words (yes, I did that on purpose) to get the author's message across to the reader in a clear and concise manner.

Proofreading itself involves pretty much the obvious: misspelled words, incorrect punctuation and grammatical errors. One of the most common "problems" facing a writer is the use of there, their and they're.

You won't find the answer here, however - that's my job, and very possibly the topic for another blog post!

Copyediting is another aspect and is a bit more involved. When editing written material, a copyeditor looks for proper structure and "flow." The last thing a reader wants is to have to work at reading. The written words should be as readable as if they were being spoken aloud. Of course this goes without saying that in such case, the speaker be well-versed in the proper use of the English language as well.

So, you have basic proofreading for spelling, punctuation and grammar; copyediting for structure and proper content; and what else? Writing. In order to be of value to an author, writer or publisher, a "proofreader" should definitely possess excellent writing abilities. If something is written without proper format or composition, how could that possibly be remedied unless your editor has the ability to find the right words and use them in the correct order, so that what you are writing is understandable and reads with ease?

The importance of a good proofreader/copyeditor is obvious to the majority of people in the "world of words." In this post I hope to have conveyed that message and defined in a bit more detail the different aspects involved in the field most commonly referred to as proofreading.